Mesoamerica Cultural Timeline

This Mesoamerica timeline is built on the standard periodization used in Mesoamerican archaeology and upon which specialists generally agree. The term Mesoamerica literally means Middle America and it typically refers to the geographic region between the southern border of the United States to the Isthmus of Panama, including Mexico and Central America. However, Mesoamerica was and is dynamic, and never a single unified block of cultures and styles. Different regions had different chronologies, and regional terminologies exist and are touched upon in their specific areas below. Archaeological sites listed below are examples for each period, a handful of the many more that could be listed, and they often were inhabited across time periods. Hunter-Gatherer Periods Preclovis Period (?25,000–10,000 BCE): There are a handful of sites in Mesoamerica that are tentatively associated with the broad-scale hunter-gatherers known as Pre-Clovis, but they are all problematic and none appear to meet enough criteria to consider them unequivocally valid. Pre-Clovis lifeways are thought to have been based on broad-based hunter-forager-fisher strategies. Possible preclovis sites include Valsequillo, Tlapacoya, El Cedral, El Bosque, Loltun Cave. Paleoindian Period (ca 10,000–7000 BCE): The first fully-attested human inhabitants of Mesoamerica were hunter-gatherer groups belonging to the Clovis period. Clovis points and related points found throughout Mesoamerica are generally associated with big game hunting. A handful of sites also include fish-tail points such as Fells Cave points, a type found more commonly in South American Paleoindian sites. Paleoindian sites in Mesoamerica include El Fin del Mundo, Santa Isabel Iztapan, Guilà ¡ Naquitz, Los Grifos, Cueva del Diablo. Archaic Period (7000–2500 BCE):. After the extinction of large-bodied mammals, many new technologies were invented, including maize domestication, developed by Archaic hunter-gatherers by 6000 BCE. Other innovative strategies included the construction of durable buildings such as pit houses, intensive techniques of cultivation and resource exploitation, new industries including ceramics, weaving, storage, and prismatic blades. The first sedentism appears about the same time as maize, and over time more and more people gave up mobile hunter-gatherer life for a village life and agriculture. People made smaller and more refined stone tools, and on the coasts, began to rely more on marine resources. Sites include Coxcatlà ¡n, Guilà ¡ Naquitz, Gheo Shih, Chantuto, Santa Marta cave, and Pulltrouser Swamp. Pre-Classic / Formative Periods The Pre-Classic or Formative period is so named because it was originally thought to be when the basic characteristics of the classic civilizations such as the Maya began to form. The major innovation was the shift to permanent sedentism and village life based on horticulture and full-time agriculture. This period also saw the first theocratic village societies, fertility cults, economic specialization, long-distance exchange, ancestor worship, and social stratification. The period also saw the development of three distinct areas: central Mesoamerica where village farming arose in the coastal and highland areas; Aridamerica to the north, where traditional hunter-forager ways persisted; and the Intermediate area to the southeast, where Chibchan speakers kept loose ties to South American cultures. Early Preclassic/Early Formative Period (2500–900 BCE): The major innovations of the Early Formative period include the increase in pottery use, transition from village life to a more complex social and political organization, and elaborate architecture. Early Preclassic sites include those in Oaxaca (San Josà © Mogote; Chiapas: Paso de la Amada, Chiapa de Corzo), Central Mexico (Tlatilco, Chalcatzingo), Olmec area ( San Lorenzo), Western Mexico (El Opeà ±o), Maya area (Nakbà ©, Cerros), and Southeastern Mesoamerica (Usulutà ¡n). Middle Preclassic/Middle Formative Period (900–300 BCE): Increasing social inequalities is a hallmark of the Middle Formative, with elite groups having a closer connection to the wider distribution of luxury items, as well as the ability to finance public architecture and stone monuments such as ball courts, palaces, sweat baths, permanent irrigation systems, and tombs. Essential and recognizable pan-Mesoamerican elements began during this period, such as bird-serpents and controlled marketplaces; and murals, monuments, and portable art speak to political and social changes. Middle Preclassic sites include those in the Olmec area (La Venta, Tres Zapotes), Central Mexico (Tlatilco, Cuicuilco), Oaxaca (Monte Alban), Chiapas (Chiapa de Corzo, Izapa), Maya area (Nakbà ©, Mirador, Uaxactun, Kaminaljuyu, Copan), West Mexico (El Opeà ±o, Capacha), Southeastern Mesoamerica (Usulutà ¡n). Late Preclassic/Late Formative Period (300 BCE–200/250 CE): This period saw an enormous population increase along with the emergence of regional centers and the rise of regional state societies. In the Maya area, this period is marked by the construction of massive architecture decorated with giant stucco masks; the Olmec may have had three or more city-states at its maximum. The Late Preclassic also saw the first evidence of a particular pan-Mesoamerican view of the universe as a quadripartite, multi-layered cosmos, with shared creation myths and a pantheon of deities. Examples of Late Preclassic sites include those in Oaxaca (Monte Alban), Central Mexico (Cuicuilco, Teotihuacan), in the Maya area (Mirador, Abaj Takalik, Kaminaljuyà º, Calakmul, Tikal, Uaxactun, Lamanai, Cerros), in Chiapas (Chiapa de Corzo, Izapa), in Western Mexico (El Opeà ±o), and in Southeastern Mesoamerica (Usulutà ¡n). Classic Period During the Classic period in Mesoamerica, complex societies increased dramatically and split into a large number of polities that varied greatly in scale, population, and complexity; all of them were agrarian and tied into the regional exchange networks. The simplest were located in the Maya lowlands, where city-states were organized on a feudal basis, with political control involving a complex system of interrelationships between royal families. Monte Alban was at the center of a conquest state that dominated most of the southern highlands of Mexico, organized around an emerging and vital craft production and distribution system. The Gulf Coast region was organized in about the same fashion, based on the long-distance exchange of obsidian. Teotihuacan was the largest and most complex of the regional powers, with a population of between 125,000 to 150,000, dominating the central region, and maintaining a palace-centric social structure. Early Classic Period (200/250–600 CE): The early Classic saw the apogee of Teotihuacan in the valley of Mexico, one of the largest metropolis of the ancient world. Regional centers began to diffuse outward, along with widespread Teotihuacan-Maya political and economic connections, and centralized authority. In the Maya area, this period saw the erection of stone monuments (called stelae) with inscriptions about kings lives and events. Early Classic sites are in Central Mexico (Teotihuacan, Cholula), the Maya area (Tikal, Uaxactun, Calakmul, Copan, Kaminaljuyu, Naranjo, Palenque, Caracol), Zapotec region (Monte Alban), and western Mexico (Teuchitlà ¡n). Late Classic (600–800/900 CE): The beginning of this period is characterized by the ca. 700 CE collapse of Teotihuacan in Central Mexico and the political fragmentation and high competition among many Maya sites. The end of this period saw the disintegration of political networks and a sharp decline in population levels in the southern Maya lowlands by about 900 CE. Far from a total collapse, however, many centers in the northern Maya lowlands and other areas of Mesoamerica continued to flourish afterward. Late Classic sites include the Gulf Coast (El Tajin), the Maya area (Tikal, Palenque, Toninà ¡, Dos Pilas, Uxmal, Yaxchilà ¡n, Piedras Negras, Quiriguà ¡, Copan), Oaxaca (Monte Alban), Central Mexico (Cholula). Terminal Classic (as it is called in the Maya area) or Epiclassic (in central Mexico) (650/700–1000 CE): This period attested a political reorganization in the Maya lowlands with a new prominence of the Northern Lowland of northern Yucatan. New architectural styles show evidence of a strong economic and ideological connections between central Mexico and northern Maya Lowlands. Important Terminal Classic sites are in Central Mexico (Cacaxtla, Xochicalco, Tula), the Maya area (Seibal, Lamanai, Uxmal, Chichen Itzà ¡, Sayil), the Gulf Coast (El Tajin). Postclassic The Postclassic Period is that period roughly between the fall of the Classic period cultures and the Spanish conquest. The Classic period saw larger states and empires replaced by small polities of a central town or city and its hinterland, ruled by kings and a small hereditary elite based at palaces, a marketplace, and one or more temples. Early Postclassic (900/1000–1250): The Early Postclassic saw an intensification of trade and strong cultural connections between the northern Maya area and Central Mexico. There was also a flourishing of a constellation of small competing kingdoms, that competition expressed by warfare-related themes in arts. Some scholars refer to the Early Postclassic as the Toltec period, because one likely dominant kingdom was based at Tula. Sites are located in Central Mexico (Tula, Cholula), Maya area (Tulum, Chichen Itzà ¡, Mayapan, Ek Balam), Oaxaca (Tilantongo, Tututepec, Zaachila), and the Gulf Coast (El Tajin). Late Postclassic (1250–1521): The Late Postclassic period is traditionally bracketed by the emergence of the Aztec/Mexica empire and its destruction by the Spanish conquest. The period saw increased militarization of competing empires across Mesoamerica, most of which fell to and became tributary states of the Aztecs, with the exception of the Tarascans/Purà ©pecha of Western Mexico. Sites in Central Mexico are (Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Cholula, Tepoztlan), in the Gulf Coast (Cempoala), in Oaxaca (Yagul, Mitla), in the Maya region (Mayapan, Tayasal, Utatlan, Mixco Viejo), and in West Mexico (Tzintzuntzan). Colonial Period 1521–1821 The Colonial period began with the fall of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and the surrender of Cuauhtemoc to Hernan Cortes in 1521; and the fall of central America including the Kiche Maya to Pedro de Alvardo in 1524. Mesoamerica was now administered as a Spanish colony. The pre-European Mesoamerican cultures sustained a huge blow with the invasion and conquest of Mesoamerica by Spaniards in the early 16th century. The conquistadors and their religious community of friars brought new political, economic, and religious institutions and new technologies including the introduction of European plants and animals. Diseases were also introduced, diseases that decimated some populations and transformed all of the societies. But in Hispania, some pre-Columbian cultural traits were retained and others modified, many introduced traits were adopted and adapted to fit into existing and sustained native cultures. The Colonial period ended when after more than 10 years of armed struggle, the Creoles (Spaniards born in the Americas) declared independence from Spain. Sources Carmack, Robert M. Janine L. Gasco, and Gary H. Gossen. The Legacy of Mesoamerica: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization. Janine L. Gasco, Gary H. Gossen, et al., 1st Edition, Prentice-Hall, August 9, 1995. Carrasco, David (Editor). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. Hardcover. Oxford Univ Pr (Sd), November 2000. Evans, Susan Toby (Editor). Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia. Special -Reference, David L. Webster (Editor), 1st Edition, Kindle Edition, Routledge, November 27, 2000. Manzanilla, Linda. Historia antigua de Mexico. Vol. 1: El Mexico antiguo, sus areas culturales, los origenes y el horizonte Preclasico. Leonardo Lopez Lujan, Spanish Edition, Second edition, Paperback, Miguel Angel Porrua, July 1, 2000. Nichols, Deborah L. The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Oxford Handbooks, Christopher A. Pool, Reprint Edition, Oxford University Press, June 1, 2016.

The New Jim Crow - 1697 Words

Victor Ferreira The New Jim Crow Chapter 2 Incarceration rates in the United States have exploded due to the convictions for drug offenses. Today there are half a million in prison or jail due to a drug offense, while in 1980 there were only 41,100. They have tripled since 1980. The war on drugs has contributed the most to the systematic mass incarceration of people of color, most of them African-Americans. The drug war is aimed to catch the big-time dealers, but the majority of the people arrested are not charged with serious offenses, and most of the people who are in prison today for drug arrests, have no history of violence or selling activity. The war on drugs is also aimed to catch dangerous drugs, however nearly 80 percent of†¦show more content†¦The drug war is racially defined, and that is why there is a huge number of African-Americans and Latinos in prisons and jails all across the country. The rate of incarceration for African American drug offenders dwarfs the rate of whites. Even though whites make up the majority of illegal drug users, three-fourths of the people who are imprisoned for drug offenses are black or Latino. Black men have been admitted to state prison on drug charges at a rate that is more than thirteen times higher than white men. Arrests and convictions for drug offenses, not violent crimes, have propelled mass incarceration among African-Americans and Latinos. They are convicted of drug offenses at rates out of all proportion to their drug crimes. The system of mass incarceration has operated in a way to effectively sweep people of color off the streets, lock them in jails, and then release them into an inferior second-class status. When it comes to racial bias in the drug war, research indicates that it was inevitable, and a public consensus was constructed by political and media elites that drug crime is black and brown. 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The Party System, Republican Vs. Federalist - 1712 Words

Final Exam Part 2 _QC There are several reasons why the two party system, Republican vs. Federalist, worked so well in the 1790’s. First, when the political parties emerged in the 1790’s it was evident that their ideologies were vastly different. The Republican Party wanted a representative form of government that functioned â€Å"in the interest of the people.† This party, led by Thomas Jefferson, supported a limited central government, with individual states retaining a majority of the control. Jefferson’s vision was for a nation of farmers, and farmers do not need big government to survive. They feared a large central government would take away the rights of the people. On the other hand, the Federalist Party, led by Alexander Hamilton, supported a strong central government that would pursue policies in support of economic growth, which in turn would provide the freedom the people wanted. Hamilton’s followers also supported a diverse economy.1 It is important to note here however, that both parties knew they would have to become national parties in order to win any elections and both parties had followers in the north and in the south. There was no sectional divide in the parties. Second, the Constitution played an important role in the why the two party system worked so well during this period. The Constitution created a system of government, which distributed power across three levels of government, so that no one political body had ultimate power. The peopleShow MoreRelatedEmergence of a Two-Party System 1789-18081405 Words   |  6 PagesEmergence of a Two-Party System 1789-1808 A two-party system is a political system in which the electorate gives its majority of votes to only two major parties and in which one or the other party can win a majority in the legislature. 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Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review - Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. Answer: Introduction Adolescent depression is one of the most serious problem related to mental health. Today nearly 15% of total adolescents are suffering from a major depression. At some point of time, 5% of the total adolescents have met the criteria for depression diagnosis. There is high risk associated when a person gets involved in depression and the risk is associated with all the other family members as well. The major factors that takes place are family antiquity of depression, being female, and sub threshold depression, having a non-affective disorder, negative cognitions, interpersonal conflict, low social support, and stressful life events. Today depression that takes place in adolescence is highly related to important impairment that aims in effective and increasing risk for evolving and creating a better future depressive episodes along with other many psychiatric disorders. There are many effective measures that can be applied to examine and measure the level of depression in adolescents. In addition to this, there are many efficacious interventions that are commonly used to cure those adolescents (Guerry, J. D., Hastings, 2011). Today there are huge number of treatments that has been widely used to detect the causes and effects of depression. Additionally, when these treatments are undertaken, it do not involve any types of evidence-based approaches and the services which are provided by them are very brief in nature (Kieling, Omigbodun Rahman, 2011). The major mission of the report is to boost and encourage health practitioners and health professionals by providing sufficient amount of skills, knowledge and training in order to recognize and identify the adolescents. Identifying adolescents who are suffering from depression is really a complex task and providing proper treatment to them requires lots of adequate knowledge and information as well. In order to meet such mission, the report will summarize the available airing and analytical tools that will eradicate the level of depression in an adolescent. Adolescent depression is a major recurring illness that has covered a third to half of the total beings who are suffering a supplementary occurrence within 3years of repossession (Naicker, Senthilselvan Colman, 2013). Strength based model of care A strengths-based approach to care, support and inclusion says lets look first at what people can do with their skills and their resources and what can the people around them do in their relationships and their communities. People need to be seen as more than just their care needs they need to be experts and in charge of their own lives. Strengths based practice is a two-way process that takes place between the person who are buoyed by services and those who are assisting them and permitting them to work in a team in order to regulate the results which aims at drawing the individuals strengths as well as assets. As such, the major concern involved in this model is that it aims at providing quality of the relationships which is enhanced and created (Barabsi, Gulbahce Loscalzo, 2011). Thus, working with a feeling of collaboration creates an opportunity for the people as well as children and families to support solely consumers to adopt those services. The phrases Strengths-based approach and asset based approach are mostly used term that are commonly interchanged by each other. The word strength is defined as the several elements that provide an opportunity for an individual to face with the issues and challenges of life on daily basis and it also helps to meet the needs of the individual and achieving what they wish for (Olds Donelan-McCall, 2013). There are many elements based on this approach which are mentioned below. Their personal resources, abilities, skills, knowledge, potential, etc. Their social network and its resources, abilities, skills, etc. Community resources, also known as social capital and/or universal resources (Zimmerman, 2013). A research was made in 2009 by Saint- Jacques. He found that Strengths based approach is based on 6major key principles which are listed below. Every family members in a family, group or community has their own major strengths. Emphasizing on those major assets instead of pathology is of crucial importance. The community plays a richest sources of resources. Interventions are user driven and self-determination is valued. Collaboration is the one of the major role among practitioner and the client and is prime and crucial. The most preferred mode of intervention is outreach. The major goal of the community should be the treatment of the victims and providing them an extra support to recover soon. Every person has an inherent ability to learn, nurture and change (Reynolds, 2010). Importance of health promotion and health education Health promotion plays an important role for nurisng practise. Health promotion creates an oppurtunity where nurses help and transforms the health of every individual who lives in the community. The entire health care system is transformed. When one looks prudently on the varied definition of nursing, it is quite exciting to look at how often health promotion activities and programs has been highlighted and showcased as being one of major and central nursing role. The concept related to health promotion emphases on the socioeconomic and environmental determinants of health. Health promotion helps to aware people about the causes and effects of any diseases that takes place in a family and the community as well (Nutbeam, Harris Wise, 2010). Similarly, health education also plays a major role. Health education aims at delivering knowledge and information related to health and teaching every individuals how to gain better health within nursing. Thus, health education is clearly defined as an activity which enhance the individual awareness, giving individual the health knowledge required to enable him or her to decide on a particular health action. Health education helps to motivate and encourage individuals to take care of them and know the importance of health in ones life (Tones, Robinson Tilford, 2013). In general, it is known that health is always influenced by envirnmental stress and copying resources. It also aims at inspiring an individual to choose the best options related to health and one should not compromise for their health at any cost. In addition to this, health promotion helps in motivating the lifestyle of the individual and understanding the patients situation, educational background, economic resources, culture beliefs and environmental factors (Eldredge, Markham Parcel, 2016). One of the most common council named Nursing and Midwifery council aims at regulating nurses and midwives all over England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. They aims at protecting the public by setting some standards of education, training, conducting programs and performances so that all the nurses will be able to deliver great quality of healthcare services. They also assure that the nurses and midwives are well skilled and trained and they must hold professionalism in themselves. They are many procedures and guidelines that must be followed by nurses and midwives. They also maintain a register who are permitted to practice in UK. They are not liable for regulating hospitals and healthcare supporters, representing on the behalf of nurses and set level of staffing (Nursing and Midwifery council, 2018). Recommendations There are few recommendations, if followed can help in better upliftment of the health of an individual as well as reduce the chances of depression in adoslescents as well. According to Strength based approach, plenty of problems may take place for individuals as well as company because this model will only emphasis on strengths without any deliberations of weaknesses and further risks to performance. A work culture or the community where an individual only focus on ordinary strengths to be active may result in an abandonment of responsibility in ranges of non-strength. In addition to this, technology must be facilitated by delivering seamless care that is positioned on the patient, moderately than compelling time away from patient care. When it comes to health education, the numbers of nurses must be expanded who must be qualified enough to serve as a faculty. In the meantime, curricula must be assessed and streamlined and technologies such as high-fidelity simulation and online education must be properly utilized in order to increase the availability of nurses. In addition to this, Acedemic practise partnership must be used in order to make efficient use of resources and increase clinical education sites (Wilkinson, Kelvin, Roberts, Dubicka Goodyer, 2011). Conclusion Thus from the above report, it can be summarized and concluded adolescent depression is commonly dominant and is totally related with major risk involved in it. Given the significant risk and damage connected with depression, it is very important in order to identify, analyze and treat the victims who are suffering from a depressive episodes. Many studies were conducted to measure the cause of effects of the depression which were later followed by comprehensive diagnostic evaluation. Although several treatments has been supported to the depressed adolescents, nearly one third of adolescents are still experiencing a relapse. In addition to this, it can also be shortened from the above report that many research needs to conducted to create a novel treatments for the adolescent depression (Rollans, Schmied, Kemp Meade, 2013). References Barabsi, A. L., Gulbahce, N., Loscalzo, J. (2011). Network medicine: a network-based approach to human disease. Nature reviews genetics, 12(1), 56. Eldredge, L. K. B., Markham, C. M., Parcel, G. S. (2016). Planning health promotion programs: an intervention mapping approach. John Wiley Sons. Guerry, J. 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